Radiographic and computed tomographic evaluation of supinator sesamoid bones in dogs.

BACKGROUND: The present study evaluated the frequency of supinator sesamoid bones (SSB) on radiography and computed tomography (CT). Interobserver agreement was evaluated in the detection of the SSBs in both methods. A correlation between the existence of SSBs and elbow diseases (ED) was assessed. For these purposes, radiographs, and CT scans of 100 dogs were scored by 3 observers. RESULTS: The SSB was identified as a round to oval-shaped opacity and measured 0.5-6.56 mm × 0.5-6.2 mm. SSBs were reported in an average of 8,33% of dogs on radiographs and 26% of dogs on CT; a bilateral sesamoid bone was present in 43,52% and 76,92% of these dogs, respectively. Seventy-two percent of the SSBs was identified on CT were not detected on radiographs. The Kappa test showed a substantial agreement (κ = 0.691) and a perfect agreement (κ = 1) between the observers in the detection of SSBs on radiography and on CT scans respectively. Additionally, a weak positive correlation was detected between ED and the existence of SSBs. CONCLUSION: A supinator sesamoid bone can be detected occasionally in the evaluation of the canine elbow joints by routine radiography. CT is superior to radiography for assessing SSBs with a higher interobserver agreement. The correlation of the existence of the SSBs and ED, needs further evaluations to prove a probable pathophysiological connection.

The Role of Tibial Plateau Angle in Canine Cruciate Ligament Rupture-A Review of the Literature.

Cranial cruciate ligament disease is a common pathological condition in dogs that is often presented in daily clinical practice. Different risk factors for the development of this condition include breed, sex, age, bodyweight and neuter status, as well as different biological and biomechanical mechanisms. In the literature, special attention has been paid to the role of the tibial plateau angle in damage to the cranial cruciate ligament. Although the disease was first described at the beginning of last century, and since then different surgical methods have been developed to treat it, its aetiology remains unclear. In this review, contemporary literature data related to the role of tibial plateau angle in canine cranial cruciate ligament rupture are presented.

Evaluation of functional muscle anatomy scalability in the canine hind limb.

In contrast to other mammals, the large variation in dog sizes is not accompanied by any significant genetic re-organization. In order to study the relationship between body mass, limb length and the functional anatomical muscle parameters of the canine hind limb, a large dataset comprising of muscle masses, optimal muscle fibre lengths and physiological cross-sectional area's (PCSA) were acquired for twenty-five muscles in ten dogs of sizes varying between 20 kg and 52 kg. The potential of body mass and limb length for reliably scaling individual muscle masses, optimal muscle fibre lengths and PCSA's were examined. For the majority of the muscles of the canine hind limb, neither body mass nor limb length were reliable scaling parameter for either muscle masses, PCSA's and optimal fibre length. These results indicate the need of a breed-specific approach to musculoskeletal modelling in future canine musculoskeletal research.

The diagnostic value of intravenous contrast computed tomography in addition to plain computed tomography in dogs with head trauma.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study is to evaluate additional findings which can be detected by post-contrast computed tomography (CCT) in relation to plain CT (PCT) findings in patients presented with head trauma. Medical records of canine patients with the history of head trauma from three institutions were reviewed. PCT- and CCT-anonymized images were evaluated by a veterinary radiologist separately. From the categorized findings the following conclusions were drawn as: abnormalities were identified on (A) PCT but missed on CCT, (B) CCT but missed on PCT, (C) both PCT and CCT. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients were included. The results showed that findings identified on CCT or PCT (category A and B) but missed on the other series were limited to mild soft tissue and sinus changes. Overall, 61 different fracture areas, 6 injuries of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), 4 orbital injuries, 14 nasal cavities with soft tissue density filling, 13 areas of emphysema, 4 symphysis separations, 12 intracranial hemorrhages, 6 cerebral edema, 5 cerebral midline shifts, 3 intracranial aeroceles, 3 brain herniations and 6 intraparenchymal foreign bodies (defined as an abnormal structure located within the brain: e.g. bony fragments, bullet, teeth,..) were identified on both PCT and CCT separately (category C). Severity grading was different in 50% (3/6) of the reported cerebral edema using PCT and CCT images. CONCLUSION: The results showed that PCT is valuable to identify the presence of intracranial traumatic injuries and CCT is not always essential to evaluate vital traumatic changes.

Antibiotic affects the gut microbiota composition and expression of genes related to lipid metabolism and myofiber types in skeletal muscle of piglets.

BACKGROUND: Early-life antibiotic administration is known to affect gut microbiota and host adiposity, but the effects of antibiotic exposure on skeletal muscle properties remain unknown. The present study evaluated the changes in skeletal muscle properties including myofiber characteristics and composition, as well as intramuscular fat (IMF) content in skeletal muscle of piglets when exposed to a tylosin-containing diet. RESULTS: A total of 18 piglets (28 days of age) were randomly allocated into two groups: control basal diet (Control) and Control + 100 mg tylosin phosphate/kg of feed (Antibiotic). The trial lasted for 39 days. High-throughput amplicon sequencing revealed that no significant difference in initial gut microbiota composition was existed between Control and Antibiotic groups. Antibiotic administration increased body weight and growth rate and decreased feed to gain ratio of pigs (P < 0.05). The carcass lean and fat volumes of pigs were increased by the tylosin administration (P < 0.05). Antibiotic treatment increased myofiber density and the expression of genes related to type I and type IIb myofibers in longissimus muscle (P < 0.05). The IMF content in longissimus muscle was increased by antibiotic exposure (P < 0.05). Antibiotic administration increased expression of genes related to fatty acid uptake and de novo synthesis, and decreased expression of genes related to triglyceride hydrolysis (P < 0.05). Tylosin administration affected taxonomic distribution and beta diversity of the caecal and colonic microbiota of piglets. CONCLUSION: These results confirm that the growth performance, myofiber composition and muscle lipid metabolism are affected by antibiotic administration, which may be associated with an altered gut microbiota, suggesting that the gut microbiota could be served as a potential target for modulating skeletal muscle properties of host.

Spatial Subchondral Bone Density Reflecting Joint Loading of the Talus in Different Canidae.

OBJECTIVE: Subchondral bone density distribution can be used to study joint biomechanics non-invasively. Differences in joint loading between related species can aid in the understanding of joint loading and the development of certain types of orthopaedic pathology. This study was conducted to evaluate density distribution in the subchondral bone of the talus of different Canidae species, as a parameter reflecting the long-term joint loading in the tarsocrural joint. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The tarsal joints of cadaveric dogs of different breeds were included, that is, German Shepherd (n = 5), Bouvier des Flandres (n = 3) and Labrador Retriever (n = 6).Additionally, golden jackals (n = 5) (Canis aureus) and wolves (n = 5) (Canis lupus) were included. Consecutive computed tomography slices were made and the subchondral bone density distribution was evaluated using computer tomographic osteoabsorptiometry. Different breeds and species were visually compared. RESULTS: Differences were found in the subchondral bone density distribution of the talus between breeds and between species (Canis familiaris, Canis lupus and Canis aureus). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Based on the density distribution, there are differences in loading conditions of the tarsocrural joint in different species of Canidae. The joint loading distribution is very similar between dogs of the same breed and within the same species. Although between-breed differences can be explained by conformational differences, the between-species differences remain subject to further research.

Invasive nasal histiocytic sarcoma as a cause of temporal lobe epilepsy in a cat.

CASE SUMMARY: A 10-year-old neutered female domestic shorthair cat was presented with an acute onset of neurological signs suggestive of a right-sided forebrain lesion, temporal lobe epilepsy and generalised seizure activity. MRI of the head revealed an expansile soft tissue mass in the caudal nasal passages (both sides but predominantly right-sided) involving the ethmoid bone and extending through the cribriform plate into the cranial vault affecting predominantly the right frontal lobe and temporal lobe. Histopathological examination of the tumour revealed a histiocytic sarcoma. RELEVANCE AND NOVEL INFORMATION: This is the first report of a cat with clinical signs of temporal lobe epilepsy due to an invasive, histiocytic sarcoma. Histiocytic sarcoma, although rare, should be included in the list of differential diagnoses for soft tissue masses extending through the cribriform plate. Other differential diagnoses are primary nasal neoplasia (eg, adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, chondrosarcoma and other types of sarcomas), lymphoma and olfactory neuroblastoma. Temporal lobe epilepsy in cats can be the consequence of primary pathology of temporal lobe structures, or it can be a consequence of pathology with an effect on these structures (eg, mass effect or disruption of interconnecting neuronal pathways).

A novel approach for regional anaesthesia of the auricular region in horses: an anatomic and imaging study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the anatomy of the ear innervation in horses and develop a new approach for the block of the internal and external pinna and acoustic meatus. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective, descriptive, cadaveric study. ANIMALS: A total of 25 heads and necks from horse cadavers. METHODS: Phase I: anatomical dissection and dye deposition on 19 heads. With the head positioned in lateral recumbency, 10 mL methylene blue (1:1 sterile water) for the internal auricular and 2 mL for the great auricular nerve block were injected in 21 ears (seven left, 10 right and two bilaterally). The anatomy of all the ears (bilaterally) and the accuracy of dye deposition (successful nerve staining defined as > 2 cm) was assessed following dissection. Occurrence of intraparotid, intravascular, or intraneural injection was recorded. Phase II: the same technique and volumes were applied, bilaterally, using a lidocaine 2%:iohexol solution mixture (3:1) in six different cadavers. Computed tomography was performed and the needle position and spread of the mixture evaluated and recorded. RESULTS: Phase I: Inter- and intraindividual differences were found in the anatomy of the great auricular nerve, but not in the internal and lateral auricular nerve branches and the caudal auricular nerve. No auriculotemporal nerve was found. Nerve staining was successful in 95% of the cases for the great auricular nerve, 85% of the cases for the internal auricular nerve, and 100% of the cases for the lateral auricular branch and caudal auricular nerve. Failure was observed in horses with abundant periauricular fat. No intravascular, intraparotid or intraneural injections occurred. Phase II: A 100% success rate was recorded from computed tomography images. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The described approach seems suitable for blockade of the sensory innervation of the equine ear.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHIC FINDINGS IN CANINE ELBOWS ARTHROSCOPICALLY DIAGNOSED WITH EROSION OF THE MEDIAL COMPARTMENT: AN ANALYTICAL METHOD COMPARISON STUDY.

Medial compartment erosion is an advanced stage of medial coronoid disease, an important cause of elbow lameness in dogs, with treatment and the expected prognosis depending on the extent of the cartilage lesions. The identification of specific computed tomographic (CT) findings might facilitate the nonsurgical diagnosis and add to treatment decision making. Aims of this retrospective, analytical, method comparison study were to describe CT findings in elbows of dogs arthroscopically diagnosed with medial compartment erosion and to compare CT vs. arthroscopic findings. A total of 56 elbows met inclusion criteria. Elbows with focal (n = 13), diffuse (n = 11), and complete (n = 32) erosion were compared. Prevalence findings for CT lesions were as follows: periarticular osteophytosis (100%), abnormal shape of the medial coronoid process of the ulna (96.4%), and subchondral bone defect of the medial part of the humeral condyle (MHC; 96.4%). The three groups significantly differed for presence of medial coronoid process fragmentation, radial head subchondral bone sclerosis, and widening of the humeroulnar joint space. No significant agreement was found between CT and arthroscopy for presence of a subchondral bone defect of the MHC. A significant agreement was found between CT and arthroscopy for presence of fragmentation of the medial coronoid process. However, some of the calcified body/fragment(s) visualized on CT in the region of the medial coronoid process could not be identified via arthroscopy. Findings indicated that an accurate estimation of the extent of the elbow cartilage lesions still requires arthroscopic joint inspection.

A chondroblastic osteosarcoma of the coronoid process mimicking a fragmented coronoid process in a dog.

A 6-year-old Rhodesian Ridgeback was presented with a 1.5 year history of right forelimb lameness. Clinical, radiological and computed tomographic findings suggested the presence of fragmented medial coronoid process. A subtotal coronoidectomy was performed and, due to the atypical appearance of the medial coronoid process on imaging and at surgery, histopathology of the fragments was performed which revealed chondroblastic OS. Ten months after surgery, the dog was re-presented with the same clinical signs and the radiographic changes were suggestive of a recurrence of the OS. Palliative therapy was instigated at the owner's request. Thirty months after surgery of the neoplasm, the dog was presented with dyspnea. Thoracic radiographs showed lesions consistent with lung metastases. Euthanasia was requested by the owner, who declined post-mortem examination.

Musculoskeletal modelling in dogs: challenges and future perspectives.

Musculoskeletal models have proven to be a valuable tool in human orthopaedics research. Recently, veterinary research started taking an interest in the computer modelling approach to understand the forces acting upon the canine musculoskeletal system. While many of the methods employed in human musculoskeletal models can applied to canine musculoskeletal models, not all techniques are applicable. This review summarizes the important parameters necessary for modelling, as well as the techniques employed in human musculoskeletal models and the limitations in transferring techniques to canine modelling research. The major challenges in future canine modelling research are likely to centre around devising alternative techniques for obtaining maximal voluntary contractions, as well as finding scaling factors to adapt a generalized canine musculoskeletal model to represent specific breeds and subjects.

Minimally Invasive Drainage of a Post-Laminectomy Subfascial Seroma with Cervical Spinal Cord Compression.

A 14 mo old female neutered Doberman pinscher was evaluated for difficulty in rising, a wide based stance, pelvic limb gait abnormalities, and cervical pain of 2 mo duration. Neurologic examination revealed pelvic limb ataxia and cervical spinal hyperesthesia. Spinal reflexes and cranial nerve examination were normal. The pathology was localized to the C1-C5 or C6-T2 spinal cord segments. Computed tomography (CT) findings indicated bony proliferation of the caudal articular processes of C6 and the cranial articular processes of C7, resulting in bilateral dorsolateral spinal cord compression that was more pronounced on the left side. A limited dorsal laminectomy was performed at C6-C7. Due to progressive neurological deterioration, follow-up CT examination was performed 4 days postoperatively. At the level of the laminectomy defect, a subfacial seroma had developed, entering the spinal canal and causing significant spinal cord compression. Under ultrasonographic guidance a closed-suction wound catheter was placed. Drainage of the seroma successfully relieved its compressive effects on the spinal cord and the patient's neurological status improved. CT was a valuable tool in assessing spinal cord compression as a result of a postoperative subfascial seroma. Minimally invasive application of a wound catheter can be successfully used to manage this condition.

Intra-arterial versus intra venous contrast-enhanced computed tomography of the equine head.

BACKGROUND: The anatomical complexity of the horse's head limits the abilities of radiography. Computed tomography (CT) in combination with contrast enhanced CT is used more often for diagnosing various head pathology in horses. The objective of this study was to compare intravenous and intra-arterial contrast-enhancement techniques and describe normal and abnormal contrast enhancement in the horse's head. RESULTS: All 24 horses included in the study recovered without complication from the procedures. Compared to the pre-contrast studies, post-contrast studies showed significant contrast enhancement in the pituitary gland (IA: p < 0.0001; IV: p < 0.0001), IA nose septum (p = 0.002), nose mucosa (IA: p < 0.0001; IV: p = 0.02), parotid salivary gland (IA: p < 0.0001; IV p < 0.0001), cerebrum (IA: p < 0.0001; IV: p < 0.0001), rectus capitis muscle (IA: p < 0.0001; IV p = 0.001), IA temporal muscle (p < 0.0001), IA masseter muscle (p <0.0001) and IV brainstem (p = 0.01). No significant contrast enhancement was seen in the eye (IA: p = 0.23; IV p = 0.33), tongue (IA p = 0.2; IV p = 0.57), IA brainstem (p = 0.88), IV nose septum (p = 0.26), IV temporal muscle (p = 0.09) and IV masseter muscle (p = 0.46). Three different categories of abnormal enhancement were detected: a strong vascularised mass, an enhanced rim surrounding an unenhanced structure and an inflamed anatomical structure with abnormal contrast enhancement. CONCLUSION: Using the intra-arterial technique, similar contrast enhancement is achieved using less contrast medium compared to the intravenous technique. And a potential major advantage of the IA technique is the ability to evaluate lesions that are characterized by increased blood flow. Using the intravenous technique, a symmetrical and homogenous enhancement is achieved, however timing is more crucial and the contrast dosage is more of influence in the IV protocol. And a potential major advantage of the IV technique is the ability to evaluate lesions that are characterized by increased vascular permeability. Knowing the different normal contrast enhancement patterns will facilitate the recognition of abnormal contrast enhancements.

Arthroscopic, Computed Tomography, and Radiographic Findings in 25 Dogs With Lameness After Arthroscopic Treatment of Medial Coronoid Disease.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the radiographic, computed tomography (CT), and arthroscopic findings in the elbow of dogs admitted for elbow lameness after previous arthroscopic treatment of medial coronoid disease (MCD). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: Client-owned dogs (n = 25) admitted for elbow lameness after arthroscopic treatment. METHODS: Clinical records (2005-2009), including radiographs, CT images, and arthroscopic findings, from the first and second presentation of dogs diagnosed with medial coronoid disease were searched and reviewed. RESULTS: Twenty-nine joints were included in this study. The mean age at first treatment was 2.2 years. Second presentation was at a mean of 2.7 years later and progressive osteoarthritis and cartilage damage was noticed in all joints. Arthroscopic findings included a calcified body in 11/29 joints (38%), multiple small calcified bodies in 1/29 joint (3%), loose scar tissue in 12/29 joints (42%), and immobile scar tissue in 2/29 joints (7%). Three of 29 joints (10%) did not have any calcified body or loose scar tissue found but had erosion of the medial compartment as the only pathology diagnosed in the coronoid region. Characteristics of flexor enthesopathy were identified in 9/29 joints (31%). CONCLUSION: Arthroscopic treatment of MCD, even with limited cartilage lesions, may not resolve lameness in some dogs. Calcified bodies or loose scar tissue near the medial coronoid process are a frequent followup finding in these joints.

An heuristic filtering tool to identify phenotype-associated genetic variants applied to human intellectual disability and canine coat colors.

BACKGROUND: Identification of one or several disease causing variant(s) from the large collection of variants present in an individual is often achieved by the sequential use of heuristic filters. The recent development of whole exome sequencing enrichment designs for several non-model species created the need for a species-independent, fast and versatile analysis tool, capable of tackling a wide variety of standard and more complex inheritance models. With this aim, we developed "Mendelian", an R-package that can be used for heuristic variant filtering. RESULTS: The R-package Mendelian offers fast and convenient filters to analyze putative variants for both recessive and dominant models of inheritance, with variable degrees of penetrance and detectance. Analysis of trios is supported. Filtering against variant databases and annotation of variants is also included. This package is not species specific and supports parallel computation. We validated this package by reanalyzing data from a whole exome sequencing experiment on intellectual disability in humans. In a second example, we identified the mutations responsible for coat color in the dog. This is the first example of whole exome sequencing without prior mapping in the dog. CONCLUSION: We developed an R-package that enables the identification of disease-causing variants from the long list of variants called in sequencing experiments. The software and a detailed manual are available at https://github.com/BartBroeckx/Mendelian.

Epinephrine-enhanced computed tomographic arthrography of the canine shoulder.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of epinephrine-enhanced computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) on the image sharpness of the lateral and medial glenohumeral ligaments (LGHL and MGHL, respectively), biceps tendon (BT) and joint cartilage (JC) in the canine shoulder. The shoulders of eight normal dogs were examined using a 4-slice helical CT scanner. The right shoulders were injected with Iohexol and the left shoulders with a mixture of Iohexol and epinephrine. CTA images were obtained after 1, 3, 5, 9, 13, 20 and 30 min and the image sharpness of the intra-articular structures in both shoulders was graded for visibility. The attenuation values were measured to examine the persistence of contrast appearance. Admixture of epinephrine and Iohexol significantly improved the image sharpness of the LGHL and the BT, especially on delayed CTA images. The use of epinephrine did not negatively affect post-CTA recovery.

Improved canine exome designs, featuring ncRNAs and increased coverage of protein coding genes.

By limiting sequencing to those sequences transcribed as mRNA, whole exome sequencing is a cost-efficient technique often used in disease-association studies. We developed two target enrichment designs based on the recently released annotation of the canine genome: the exome-plus design and the exome-CDS design. The exome-plus design combines the exons of the CanFam 3.1 Ensembl annotation, more recently discovered protein-coding exons and a variety of non-coding RNA regions (microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs and antisense transcripts), leading to a total size of ≈ 152 Mb. The exome-CDS was designed as a subset of the exome-plus by omitting all 3' and 5' untranslated regions. This reduced the size of the exome-CDS to ≈ 71 Mb. To test the capturing performance, four exome-plus captures were sequenced on a NextSeq 500 with each capture containing four pre-capture pooled, barcoded samples. At an average sequencing depth of 68.3x, 80% of the regions and well over 90% of the targeted base pairs were completely covered at least 5 times with high reproducibility. Based on the performance of the exome-plus, we estimated the performance of the exome-CDS. Overall, these designs provide flexible solutions for a variety of research questions and are likely to be reliable tools in disease studies.

Thoracic and lumbar vertebral bone mineral density changes in a natural occurring dog model of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis.

Ankylosing spinal disorders can be associated with alterations in vertebral bone mineral density (BMD). There is however controversy about vertebral BMD in patients wuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). DISH in Boxer dogs has been considered a natural occurring disease model for DISH in people. The purpose of this study was to compare vertebral BMD between Boxers with and without DISH. Fifty-nine Boxers with (n=30) or without (n=29) DISH that underwent computed tomography were included. Vertebral BMD was calculated for each thoracic and lumbar vertebra by using an earlier reported and validated protocol. For each vertebral body, a region of interest was drawn on the axial computed tomographic images at three separate locations: immediately inferior to the superior end plate, in the middle of the vertebral body, and superior to the inferior end plate. Values from the three axial slices were averaged to give a mean Hounsfield Unit value for each vertebral body. Univariate statistical analysis was performed to identify factors to be included in a multivariate model. The multivariate model including all dogs demonstrated that vertebral DISH status (Coefficient 24.63; 95% CI 16.07 to 33.19; p <0.001), lumbar vertebrae (Coefficient -17.25; 95% CI -23.42 to -11.09; p < 0.01), and to a lesser extent higher age (Coefficient -0.56; 95% CI -1.07 to -0.05; p = 0.03) were significant predictors for vertebral BMD. When the multivariate model was repeated using only dogs with DISH, vertebral DISH status (Coefficient 20.67; 95% CI, 10.98 to 30.37; p < 0.001) and lumbar anatomical region (Coefficient -38.24; 95% CI, -47.75 to -28.73; p < 0.001) were again predictors for vertebral BMD but age was not. The results of this study indicate that DISH can be associated with decreased vertebral BMD. Further studies are necessary to evaluate the clinical importance and pathophysiology of this finding.

Computed Tomographic and Low-Field Magnetic Resonance Arthrography: A Comparison of Techniques For Observing Intra-articular Structures of the Normal Canine Shoulder.

OBJECTIVE: To compare low-field magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) and computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) for identification of intra-articular ligaments and joint cartilage in the normal canine shoulder with the aid of cross-sectional anatomy. ANIMALS: Normal adult Foxhounds (n = 3) and 4 Foxhound cadaver shoulders. METHODS: CTA of 3 dogs was performed after intra-articular administration of contrast medium in both shoulders. Transverse slices and reformatted sagittal and dorsal images were obtained. Later, an MRA study of all 6 shoulder joints was performed using a low-field system. T1- and T2-weighted images were made in 3 planes, arthrography performed, and T1-weighted images repeated. Unrelated cadaver shoulder joints were injected with red methylmethacrylate, frozen, and sectioned into dorsal, sagittal, and transverse sections. Representative anatomic images were compared with the CTA, MRA, and T2-weighted images. RESULTS: The joint cartilage was identified on all CTA images. The glenohumeral ligaments were clearly visible on the transverse and dorsal CTA and MRA images but were not detected on the T2-weighted sequences. The biceps tendon could be evaluated on all images. The supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis muscle tendons were most easily identified on the MRA and T2-weighted MR images. CONCLUSIONS: CTA was useful for seeing articular cartilage and both CTA and MRA were useful for seeing the normal glenohumeral ligaments; however, further research is needed to examine each technique's sensitivity for diagnosing the pathology of these ligaments and any associated lesions of the capsule, tendon, and bone, and for determining the clinical importance of CTA for evaluating loose fragments or osteochondral lesions.

Ultrasonographic and anatomic study of the canine elbow joint.

OBJECTIVE: To (1) assess the canine elbow joint using a high frequency transducer (18 MHz); (2) describe the echogenicity and echo texture of the joint; and (3) correlate the ultrasonographic images with transparent plastinated anatomic sections. DESIGN: Descriptive study. SAMPLE POPULATION: German Shepherd cross-breed dogs (cadavers, n = 10; live dogs, n = 5). METHODS: Elbow joints of 10 adult German Shepherd cross-breed dog cadavers were examined by ultrasonography and then 5 cadavers were selected for use in an anatomic study, in which 2 mm thick sections were obtained in the same planes as in the ultrasonographic protocol. Sections were plastinated using the E-12 plastination method and correlated to the corresponding ultrasonographic images. The elbow joints of 5 German Shepherd adult dogs were assessed by ultrasonography for comparison with cadaver images. RESULTS: Good correspondence of soft tissue and bone structures was obtained between ultrasound images and anatomic sections. There was no difference in the ultrasonographic appearance of elbows of cadavers and live dogs in which the muscular, ligamentous, and bone components of the joints were evaluated. CONCLUSION: This study presents a descriptive comparison of anatomic and ultrasonographic images, which will offer clinicians a more comprehensive understanding of the anatomic structures of the canine elbow joint and serve as reference for further imaging diagnostic studies because of the precise correspondence between anatomic plastinated sections and ultrasonographic images.